( COMMON SENSE )
by Roulette
Wm Smith
21 March 2008,
posted 29 March 2008
[1]
At
the outset, I wish to express my very sincere appreciation to Frederick
[2]
There
is an additional caveat. As noted, Abraham cites some of the history and
philosophy underlying research on common sense. I deliberately, albeit subtly
and succinctly, challenged those findings in TA100 (cf. Smith, 2006; Smith, in
preparation; Avicenna / Marmura, 2004; Mullooly, 2003; Mullooly, 2006).
The Chinese ideographic representation for common sense clearly predates all
discussions of common sense by western scholars (cf. [22] and Footnotes 68 and
70 in TA100). The Sanskrit term for common sense also affirms this observation
(see [22] and Footnote 71 in TA100). Although TA100 did not cite evidence of
any historical representations of common sense in ancient Hebrew or any
Australian Aboriginal languages, those languages also affirm the age-old
universality of notions of common sense. That those historical representations
are not acknowledged or appreciated in past historical and philosophical
discussions of common sense calls into question – at least for this author –
one’s appreciation of the breadth and depth underlying common sense and its
profound importance as psychobiological, developmental, social, linguistic,
economic, transmissible and evolutionary constructs (also see [21] and Footnote
21 in TA100). Even if scholars question whether non-human animals can possess
common sense (see [22], [62], Footnote 43, [78] and [85] in TA100; cf.
[3]
The
point of the latter caveat is not to disparage or challenge Abraham. Rather,
readers are reminded that common sense rarely is studied ‘in-the-large’, yet it
retains a rich and complex texture – particularly regarding its core
psychological, biological and evolutionary underpinnings. Moreover, the universality
underlying common sense (captured minimally in Tables 1 and 2 in TA100) serves
to remind us of a need to appreciate and understand those core and universal
principles – and particularly across time/age, cultures and languages. Implicit
in this remark is a profound respect for the many scholars who address
commonsense issues. Thinking and writing about common sense is both difficult
and challenging. TA100 represented a perceived need to break new ground in:
diagnostics and question-asking; medicine and other clinical professions;
neurosciences and other life sciences; physical sciences; psychology, education
and cognitive sciences; economics, political science and other social sciences;
information sciences; engineering and non-invasive technologies; language,
journalism and communication studies; game theory, military science and peace
studies; cross-, multi-, inter-, trans- and meta-disciplinary inquiry; ethics
and moral philosophy; evolution; metaphysics; and, logic, methodology and
philosophy of science. In short, studies of common sense represent one of the
few lines of inquiry transcending virtually all disciplines. It includes
concerns for cross-disciplinary, multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary and metadisciplinary
issues and implications.
[4]
Now
to specific issues mentioned in Frederick
[5]
In
<C2> through <C4>, Abraham cites specific scholars’ teachings on
common sense. Abraham could not be expected to know that those scholars’
teachings were cited indirectly in TA100 in [22], on page 59, and in references
to Mullooly (2003; 2006) and Smith (2006; in
preparation). Because Smith (in preparation) exceeds 150 manuscript pages,
perhaps one can appreciate why TA100 did not include a detailed review of the
history and literature on common sense when such a review would provide very
little insight into disorders in common sense or their implications for research
on consciousness studies, care-giving, health and/or wellness. With that said,
Abraham’s citations provide a good place in which one can jump into a swimming
pool of issues pertaining to common sense. Metaphorically, his introduction is
neither at the shallow end nor the deep end of that swimming pool. One need not fear sinking or drowning!
[6]
Regarding
operational definitions of common sense per
se (see <C1> and <C6>), my research now convinces me that no
discussion of operational definitions for common sense can be complete without
also addressing the matter of operational definitions for disorders in common
sense. This was the value of TA100 focusing on disorders in common sense, and
particularly regarding its in situ
phenomenological findings. Indeed, any operational definition of common sense
which does not take into account disorders in common sense may, de facto, lack validity. Metaphorically,
TA100 is tantamount to a report of a clinical home visit – one of the clinical
niceties and practices which vanished after publication of the Flexner Report
(1910; also see <www.carnegiefoundation.org/publications/pub.asp?key=43&subkey=97>).
The hastily constructed (post hoc)
Table 2 (cf. [89] and [104] in TA100) reveals the types of information, chaos
and economic catastrophes which generally would not be known to clinicians or
professionals except among in situ
situations such as in home and family environments.
[7]
Because
there appears to be no professional/clinical awareness of common sense or its
disorders (see [18], [20] and [87] in TA100), operational definitions for
disorders in common sense ideally should capture concerns that eventually might
benefit clinicians familiar with definitions in diagnostic and statistical
manuals (e.g., the DSM and ICD). For example, the DSM-IV-R promulgated by the
American Psychiatric organizes psychiatric diagnoses into five levels (axes)
relating to different aspects of disorder or disability (American Psychiatric
Association, 2000; also see <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders>):
·
Axis I: clinical disorders, including major
mental disorders, as well as developmental and learning disorders;
·
Axis II: underlying pervasive or personality
conditions, as well as mental retardation;
·
Axis III: Acute medical conditions and
physical disorders;
·
Axis IV: psychosocial and environmental
factors contributing to the disorder;
·
Axis V: Global Assessment of Functioning or
Children’s Global Assessment Scale for children under the age of 18. (on a scale from 100 to 0).
Although
disorders in common sense are not included in the DSM, the DSM can provide a
framework for operational definitions, characterizations and categorizations of
those disorders. This teaches that definitions of disorders in common sense, at
the very least, must be mindful of potential multi-axial factors (cf. <2>
in C4). These might include: Axis IV shifts and divergences in common sense
caused by situational factors such as war and environmental trauma ([12] and
[13] in TA100); Axis III acute stress-induced medical and physical disorders ([16],
[30], [50], [61], [73], [100] in TA100), and also including a panoply of
virus-mediated stress-induced epigenetic and psychosomatic disorders (Smith,
2003); Axis II chronic, pervasive and personality-level conditions (e.g., Proposita A, C and D in TA100; also see Table 3 in TA100);
and, Axis I developmental and learning disorders (cf. [8], [15], [56], [65] and
[113] in TA100). Not enough generally is known about clinical aspects of common
sense or disorders in common sense to anticipate any findings on Global
Assessment scales (Axis V disorders). These multi-axial factors implicitly
affirm the importance and characteristics of outliers and inappropriate
thinking (and decision-making) in general definitions of common sense (cf. [4],
[5] and [6] in R1).
[8]
One
last 5-part caveat before discussing operational (and other) definitions of
common sense in contradistinction to operational definitions for disorders in
common sense. “Logistic reasoning” (Smith, 1983) is an approach to
question-asking, strategic thinking, sense-making, decision-making and
problem-solving which, in part, seeks an appropriate balance in concerns for
and reasoning about structures, functions, processes and logistics. In TA100,
it was cited in reference to approaches to explicate issues pertaining to
common sense (see [88], [28], [29], [30], [58], [69], [78], [79], [84], [88],
[90], [105], [116] and Footnote 60 in TA100). Logistic reasoning also was used
covertly in five ways when crafting TA100. First, if TA100 was tethered to specific
definitions of common sense, then many, if not most readers, would focus their
attention on those definitions. This would be consistent with
[9]
Second,
Table 1 in TA100 reveals that language and culture may obscure subtle, though
important, features in any definitions – particularly regarding roles of
cognitive and consciousness processes in common sense and its disorders. Table
2 in TA100 reveals that language, culture and states-of-mind (including
consciousness and emotions) are even
more important. The evocative nuances and outlier responses associated with
culture, language, emotion, turmoil and chaos often are inapparent
to the uninitiated. In other words, prior to the challenge of providing
operational definitions, there may be a need for underlying languages of
definitions. This need for underlying languages of definitions is becoming
increasingly apparent in metaphysics too. Recent discoveries associated with
Hubble Telescope experiments, and studies in neurosciences and genomic sciences,
now are reshaping discussions on mind-independent realities [MIR] such as
“cosmos,” “onta” and “qualia”; mental thought
processes [MTP] such as “time” and “temporality”; and other metaphysical
constructs (cf. TA92, TA93 and their associated commentaries; hermeneutics;
phenomenology; as well as the many authors and scholars writing on “mind,”
“consciousness,” “belief,” and “heterophenomenology”
[Dennett, 2003]). Hopefully, the genomic and biological (“biologized”)
underpinnings cited in TA100 can contribute to this expansive metaphysical
dialogue.
[10]
Third,
a conscious and deliberate goal was to engage TA100 readers in a process of
discerning and discovering definitions of common sense and disorders of common
sense based both on the in situ
phenomenological observations and on synchronic, diachronic and
process-oriented characterizations of common sense (see [88] and Footnote 8 in
TA100). To this end, public and private comments regarding TA100 have been both
encouraging and heartwarming!
[11]
Fourth,
my experiences as a Founding Executive Editor of Instructional Science ([117] in TA100) taught me the importance of
all forms of definitions (cf. Ennis, 1984) – including definitions by axiomatization, counterexample, sentential and predicate
inferences of logical negation and falsification / contraposition (e.g., Modus Tollendo Tollens), contradiction,
etc. Indeed, different versions of entries in Table 2 specifically were
included in TA100 precisely because, by logistic reasoning, no definition of
common sense could be complete without characterizing what is common sense,
what common sense is not, and what may be inferred from common sense and its
disorders.
[12]
Finally,
an insistence on having definitions may be premature without a model of the
“whole.” My research teaches that humans may or should be characterized along
at least four factors: memory and knowledge processing components; abilities
and intelligence processing components; sense and common sense processing
components; and, transpersonal components. In the end, I hope that readers will
appreciate my awareness and sensitivity regarding all aspects of definitions –
including the exigencies and challenges associated with their forms,
completeness and evolution (see [20], [21], [57], [58], [83], [84], [88], [89]
and [90] in TA100).
[13]
What
implicitly or explicitly (and, covertly and overtly) should be ingredients in
any definition(s) of common sense and, by inference, disorders in common sense?
To address this issue, I find it useful and instructive to canvass a number of
terms cited in others’ commentaries. In <C6> through <C9>, Abraham
(also citing
[14]
This
brief exercise in identifying challenges for common sense (in [13]) serves to
remind readers of the many challenges associated with positing a simple and
succinct “operational definition” for common sense. Can one put forth
definitions of common sense consistent with many or most of the challenges
cited in [13]? My research, to date, suggests that at least four features must
be included in any overarching (operational or other) definitions of common
sense. One feature is an acknowledgment of quasi-observable commonalities in
group/herd behaviors (see [7], Footnote 1, [13], Footnote 12, [19], [20], [21],
[22], Footnote 22, [37], [53], [55], [57], [62], [63], Footnote 43, [78], [89],
[90], [91], [99] and [102] in TA100). There must be a sense of transparency
associated with common sense, with that transparency being evident to the herd
/ group. I hope that Abraham, Krippner, Muller, Patlavskiy and others would concur on this point insofar as
the universality of common sense across time, cultures and languages appears to
be immutable. Indeed, ‘universality’ becomes central to any metaphysical
discussion of mind, consciousness, and belief.
[15]
A
second feature of common sense is that commonalities in behaviors and actions
are central traits of the population and
all of its sub-samples (including individuals), though with allowable
variances. The notions of quasi-observability and
variances are meant to emphasize that common sense is real, tangible, and does
not represent ‘clonal’ sense. Although individual
differences are hallmarks of test theories, variances in individual differences
associated with common sense are circumscribed by group / herd cohesiveness. In
terms of epistemology, common sense is a trait of individuals, sub-groups and target
populations.
[16]
Third
and fourth features, traits or characteristics of common sense are that common
sense must be acceptably rational (akin to a fuzzy set of rational behaviors)
and disorders in common sense involve the inappropriate and irrational. Disorders
in common sense generally involve inappropriate, irrational and extreme
outliers – and especially those outliers implicated in thinking,
decision-making and other cognitive processes. In other words, some variances
among individuals and within sub-group of the herd / group / population are
expected and allowable. Disorders in common sense generally involve only the
extreme outliers and outlying behaviors which violate cohesive factors which
bind the group / herd / population. In citing the rational, irrational and
outliers, one should never infer that commonsense behaviors must be identical
or clonal for all members of the herd / group!
[17]
Although
the many terms in [13] may be incorporated in the four features cited in [14],
[15] and [16], these four features are deemed to be irreducible (cf. [6] in
R1), and perhaps necessary and sufficient for any operational definitions. This
does not simplify the challenge of providing operational definitions though.
After all, the measurement and operationalization of
“observability,” and distinguishing among simple
error variances and outliers are non-trivial tasks. With that said, there are
exciting novel test-theoretic possibilities for operationalizing
common sense by focusing on individuals, samples and/or the population as a
whole (also see [3], [4] and [5] in R2). One can envision a theory of testing
and measurement (along with implications for rational and irrational economic
behaviors) for which, not only would a person’s error behavior be assessed,
other persons’ indirect perspectives on that behavior also would be taken into
account. The underlying theory is that persons’ rational behaviors often are
constrained by peer ‘context’ and connections. Another way of characterizing
this theory is that people think and behave in accord with their peers, and that
their irrational behaviors defy peer boundary conditions. This non-linear
theory of testing and measurement is inspired, in part, by the deadly shooting
spree by Cho Seung-Hui
at Virginia Tech. The recent shooting spree at Northern Illinois University
adds support for this concern. Cho’s colleagues’, teachers’ and other persons’
reflections helped me define more precisely the nature of his disorder. Those
reflections also helped me crystallize my views on needs for indirect
approaches to definitions, defining behavior, and, testing and measuring
behaviors. It would be relatively easy to incorporate this non-linear approach
to testing into protocols for SAT, ACT, GRE and other national testing programs
because identifier information for individuals and peers could be coordinated
using some forms of network modeling and analyses schema. An article by Kahn
(2008) reveals a second example in which indirect observations (from vignettes
by classmates and others) may point to aberrant common sense associated with
irrational behavior.
[18]
In
reflecting on these specific and logistic considerations, my conclusion is that
it is folly to insist on precise operational definitions of common sense and
its disorders at this time … despite
the desirability of such constructs. At the same time, one cannot overlook the
operational and practical challenges associated with shooting sprees on college
and other campuses, and in workplaces; hazing and alcohol-related binging on
college campuses; and, needs for early detection and intervention for disorders
in common sense in children and others. These observations provide a natural
entry point for a discussion of Abraham’s Issue Two – the social significance
of common sense (see <C1>, <C12> through <C14>, and
<C15> through <C18> in C5).
[19]
Abraham
seems to tap into two overarching concerns regarding the social significance of
common sense. Succinctly, one issue relates to individual freedom and liberty,
and the second issue pertains to ‘biologizing’ common
sense. Serge Patlavskiy, in C9, also expresses a concern about biological modeling
insofar as evolutionary issues may have a biological basis. Both respondents’
concerns have validity – particularly in the sense that there could be a
potential for misuse and abuse. Indeed, the potential for misuse and abuse
concerns me too … and TA100 attempted to deal with these issues in a scholarly,
dispassionate, sensitive, respectful, anticipatory and compassionate manner
(see [86] through [105], [106] through [118] in the Afterword, and [119] and
[120] in the Endnote in TA100).
[20]
The
example of indirect measurement and assessment ([17]) embodies each of the
issues Abraham finds objectionable. For some persons, concerns about indirect
approaches might imply that “Big Brother” could be looming over one’s personal
freedoms and liberties. Although theoretically true, the essence of common
sense is a concern about context – particularly the context of “one’s self” in
reference to “others” (i.e., in the group / herd, and across groups / cultures).
To reveal an awareness of context need not imply any notion of intent. Indeed,
distinctions between intent, purpose, function, association and event precisely
are reasons for grappling with an underlying molecular and biological basis for
common sense (cf. [84], Footnote 64 and [112] in TA100).
[22]
In
terms of social significance, the reader should be the judge! Should one favor
a laissez-faire approach to acts
which might be harmful to self or others? Should school and college
administrators turn a blind eye to serious mental health problems and potential
consequences associated with dysfunctional common sense? Should parents, health
care providers, spiritual leaders and others caregivers ignore context, common
sense, and, distortions and disorders in common sense?
[23]
What
about the social significance associated with aberrant common sense in sciences
(cf. <11> in C5; also see [82], [96], [103], [112] and [115] in TA100)?
My perspective is that thinking ‘out-of-the-box’ and paradigm shifts generally are
not about common sense. Rather, the underlying issue pertains to creativity,
though constrained by professional or disciplinary context and common sense. My
Afterword in TA100 cites numerous instances of my creativity and thinking out
of the box, though all instances are grounded in solid disciplinary and
interdisciplinary sciences and common sense. This particular issue serves to
remind us of a need to distinguish among four (cognitive / mental) axes: a) memory and knowledge; b) abilities and intelligence; c) sense and common sense; and, d) the transpersonal (see [12]). Educator and
writer
[24]
Regarding
intent and intentionality per se,
that common sense may have a biological basis carries no direct implication
pertaining to intentionality. For example, to discuss a putative molecular and
biological basis for common sense carries no intention or implication about
intelligent design – a criticism frequently leveled against this viewpoint.
Recent books by
[25]
In
view of comments by Serge Patlavskiy (<5> and <6> in C9) and Fred Abrahams (<13> in
C5), why is it crucially
relevant to explore a possible biological basis for common sense? As noted in
[8] (and also in [88], [28], [29], [30], [58], [69], [78], [79], [84], [88],
[90], [105], [116] and Footnote 60 in TA100), logistic reasoning (Smith, 1983;
Smith, 2006; Smith, in preparation) was used in exploring a seminal hypothesis
that DNA is the repository of long-term memories in living systems [LTM; Smith,
1979]. This ‘DNA as LTM’ thesis represents a fundamental paradigm shift and, to
use Abraham’s terminology, an example of thinking ‘outside-of-the-box’.
Notwithstanding extant views, there are ‘commonsense’ (rational and logical)
considerations underlying the thesis, along with copious theoretical,
ethological, experimental, clinical and epidemiological data support for the
thesis. Logistic reasoning teaches that all implications and ramifications of
the LTM thesis must be explored. This exploration is analogous to look-ahead
strategies used in games of checkers, chess and go, or in war games. One always
looks for evidence which might refute the hypothesis, although, to date, no
data have been forthcoming which refutes the ‘DNA as LTM’ thesis.
[26]
For
the benefit of readers unfamiliar with my research, please permit me to briefly
outline several discoveries during the late-1970s which led to (in the
following order) the ‘DNA as LTM’ hypothesis, and subsequent research on HIV/AIDS,
evolution, logistic reasoning, epigenetic diseases, psychoviruses,
common sense, and disorders in common sense. This brief vignette also serves to
clarify important distinctions among knowledge, common knowledge, creativity,
ability, sense, common sense, and the transpersonal.
[27]
The
saga began in 1977 when I was a medical student at the University of
California, San Francisco. I was asked to prepare a biochemistry term paper on:
a) the molecular biology of aging (for Professor Christine Guthrie); b) genetic
engineering (for Professor Herbert Boyer); or, c)
the molecular biology of long-term memory (for Professor Stanley Prusiner). I would receive one unit of academic credit for
the term paper. To my surprise, I could see connections between each topic (cf.
[23]), and asked if I could write the term paper on the three issues, though
still receiving the one unit of credit. Only Prusiner
agreed to this arrangement. Within two weeks, I had discovered that there were
thousands of reports on the molecular biology of LTM and aging. Linus Pauling had proposed that proteins could be the basis
of LTM. A number of psychologists and psychobiologists
had proposed that RNA and transfer factors could be the basis of LTM and/or
aging. However, I could find no report suggesting that DNA could be the
repository of LTM in brain. I also discovered that every known ‘slow virus’
(especially lentiviruses and prions,
without exception) is associated with
dementia or some immune system dysfunction – the latter possibility I dubbed
“immune dementia.” I also discovered that Francis Crick’s “central dogma”
served to constrain thinking that DNA could be a repository of LTM because the
central dogma posits that molecular (genomic) information generally flows in
one direction but not in an inverse direction. Ironically, a footnote in
Crick’s report (1970) mentioned that a slow virus (scrapie)
possibly could violate his dogma, yet I could find no citations in Science
Citations Index referring to the Crick footnote. It was that footnote which was
the linchpin supporting my thesis (Smith, 1979; Smith, 2001; Smith, 2006;
Smith, in preparation; [107], [108] and Footnote 65 in TA100).
[28]
It
is noteworthy that my 1979 discoveries reflected elements of: 1) luck (e.g., Prusiner’s lab worked on scrapie,
an agent causing dementia); 2) memory, knowledge and common knowledge (i.e.,
based on reviews of thousands of published reports); 3) ability and creativity
(i.e., recognizing that DNA was being overlooked as a repository of LTM, that
slow virologists ignored the immune system, and that Crick’s “central dogma”
was incorrect); and, 4) sense-making (i.e., exploring the implications of my
discoveries for LTM, anticipating HIV/AIDS even
prior to the 1981 discovery of GRIDS/AIDS; formulating transmissible and
infectious epigenetic models; articulating and defining logistic reasoning, psychoviruses, transmissible negativism and common sense in
children; reformulating evolution; and, proposing a molecular basis of common
sense as one manifestation of LTM), though not common sense per se. A transpersonal element entered
the picture too! Professor Lennart Stjårne (of the Karolinska
Institute) commented positively and favorably regarding my ideas at the
Jerusalem presentation (Smith, 1979; Stjårne,
personal communication to Norma Abe Smith). Stjårne’s
remarks provided me with the tenacity and confidence to pursue an
unconventional line of reasoning for more than 25 years. The only element of
common sense involved in this saga involved a recognition, understanding and
acceptance that my ‘out-of-the-box’ perspective was unconventional and not
widely accepted. In other words, despite the proposed significant shift in
paradigms regarding LTM, I knew that I had to “hold my nose and don’t ask
questions” (personal communication from an anonymous UCSF professor). The
latter was a matter of common sense! [NB: Much of this saga is chronicled in
the Afterword to TA100 and in Smith (in preparation).]
[29]
Apart
from Nobel prizes awarded to Barbara McClintock (transposons),
Susumu Tonegawa (immunoglobulin gene rearrangements)
and Stanley Prusiner (prions),
perhaps the most compelling evidence supporting the ‘DNA as LTM’ hypothesis
derives from genetic diseases, proteomic diseases (i.e., associated with the
protein-encoding region of the DNA-genome), and non-proteomic diseases (i.e.,
associated with the non-protein-encoding “junk” regions of the DNA-genome). A
succinct example is Huntington’s disease. It has a genetic component – the huntingtin gene –
with neuromuscular correlates. It has a proteomic component – trinucleotide repeats [TNR] – which encroach into
non-proteomic regions in the genome. And, it has cognitive and behavioral
components – including dementia – which, in theory (and with copious supporting
data), reflect consequences of the TNR encroachments. There is no evidence of
one-to-one correspondences between specific memory events (such as a person’s
name) with specific changes in DNA in specific neurons. There is substantial
evidence that a priori DNA changes in
selected neurons may lead to a posteriori
axon-dendrite consequences (to wit, neural networks). Not only does the model
explain cognitive, behavioral and neuromuscular findings, it also can explain
unanticipated consequences – associated with sleep, dreaming, and, not least,
aberrant common sense.
[30]
What
are some of the implications and ramifications of this brief vignette?
Regardless of one’s viewpoint, the ‘DNA as LTM’ thesis has profound
implications for evolution. The model fundamentally is neo-Darwinian and
neo-Lamarckian. DNA changes in brain associated with LTM cannot be genetic, even though genetic elements may be implicated
in producing changes. Transmissibility of information most likely comports with
non-Darwinian forms of transmission and replication – with mirror neurons being
implicated among mechanisms accounting for non-genetic replication. These
implications and ramifications are rational, logical and matters of common sense, even though there are no conventional
commonsense views about genetics, proteomics and non-proteomics per se. Rather, the underlying common
sense comports with standard teachings in various disciplines – including
logic, methodology and philosophy of sciences; genetics; biochemistry; virology
and microbiology; clinical medicine; neurosciences; etc.
[31]
In
summary, I have used my personal saga to illustrate important distinctions
among: knowledge and common knowledge; abilities and intelligence; sense-making
and common sense; and, the transpersonal. The particular vignette, although
personal, is meant to lend support for unconventional and out-of-the-box ideas
which still comport with common sense and disciplined inquiry. Hopefully, this
example also will dispel any notion that “To act (or think) according to common
sense means to act (to think) as many others would act (think) in the same
situation” (see <4> in C9). If that view was true, then arts, creativity
and scholarship virtually would vanish. On the other hand, there are numerous
instances in the sciences where commonsense issues are overlooked. The repeated
failures in attempts at producing vaccines against HIV were cited in TA100 (see
[80], [96], [103], [112] and [115]). These failures are based on not knowing
when to stop – statistically (i.e., multiple instances of failures to reject
any null hypothesis) and economically – and despite evidence that a somewhat
counterintuitive paradigm shift produces the desired consequences ([80], [103],
[112] and [115] in TA100)
[32]
I
now wish to focus on the intriguing questions posed by
[32]
Bear
in mind that my research is, at this time, at best primitive and formative in
nature. On the other hand, there may be value in reflecting on the history of
research in artificial intelligence [AI]. John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky and others – the MIT / Stanford model – pursued AI
models which purported to exhibit intelligence, though not necessarily
exhibiting intelligence as seen in humans or other animals. Kenneth Colby
(Stanford / UCLA) pursued an AI model (“the Mad Doctor”) which embodied
question-asking and dialogue that might emulate a psychiatrist communicating
with a client. Allen Newell, Herbert Simon and others – the CMU model – pursued
AI models which purported to exhibit human-like intelligence, including error
behavior and other nuances. Robert Glaser, Patrick Suppes
and others – the Pittsburg / Stanford-IMSSS model – pursued AI models in
education, which combined elements of the CMU model and a focus on
question-asking as would occur in teaching and instruction. My approach to the
study of common sense represents a mixture of Colby/CMU/Stanford-IMSSS
teachings (cf. Smith, 1973a; Smith, 1973b). I perceive common sense being
modeled heuristically, though using real/live data. Central to my approach to
modeling common sense is a profound respect for understanding ‘what is’ and
‘what is not’. This is a reason for including Tables 1 and 2 in TA100. It also
is a reason that modeling healthy and disease / dysfunctional behaviors are
central to my thinking and reasoning.
[33]
Regarding
how we may know that a person may have common sense, my approach involves three
“filters” – one filter focuses on expected (‘healthy’) performance, and a
second filter focuses on aberrant / dysfunctional performance. This approach
comports well with a “medical model” in most ways, save one. A third filter
focuses additionally on issues of knowledge, need and care (see Endnote [119]
and [120] in TA100). My model also filters information from sources other than propositi – with this being a reason for a recommendation
that indirect approaches to definitions be considered ([9], [17] and [21] and
TA100). Hence, my filters generally – and quite successfully – reveal persons
who have common sense in contradistinction to persons with disorders in common
sense (Smith, 1988; Smith, 1992; Smith, 2004).
[34]
Johnson-Kallos’ notion of faking common sense poses three
intriguing possibilities. One possibility is that a person has a disorder in
common sense, though is able to “fake” having common sense. My three filter
model generally snags this type of factitious ‘fakery’. Yes, I know that I have
not provided the “operational” instructions which might define how my filters
work (cf. Smith, 1992). Those persons with clinical experience will understand
the difficulties associated with operationally defining their clinical tricks
of the trade, and yet will attest to the reliability, validity, veracity and
verisimilitude in their clinical skills.
[35]
A
second type of fakery may be far more insidious and/or diabolic. Are there
persons who possess “common sense,” though who would have one believe that they
lack common sense? Smith (1992) cited evidence that numerous national political
and other public personalities may lack common sense, thus giving rise to a
plea for “national caveats emptor.” In this instance, the challenge is one of
inducing an awareness of disorders in common sense ([8], [9] and [10] in R2).
The best example of an attempt at faking dysfunctional common sense – and,
indeed, the scariest example – is cited in Suri
(2008), even though I lack first-hand information about the ruse.
[36]
There
is a third form of potential ‘fakery’ not far afield from the second form. This
is associated with theatrical fakery – as an actor might perform in a
theatrical role. Because some aspects of common sense are as ingrained as
personality, actors (and especially character actors) would be expected to
master cultural, linguistic and sense-making traits – within the context of
some target group. This challenge invites some intriguing possibilities and
opportunities. One possibility involves screen or stage actors performing
commonsense and dysfunctional commonsense behavioral roles within their own
culture. A second possibility would involve actors performing commonsense and
dysfunctional commonsense behavioral roles in another culture or during a
different period in time. Games such as “dungeons and dragons” reveal a third
possibility; to wit, avatars may be expected to acquire fictional or cybersociality commonsense behaviors – despite underlying
stability and universality in common sense (cf. [78] in TA100). Each of these
possibilities creates exciting theatrical, simulation and gaming opportunities,
including the theatrical exploration of ranges
in common sense (and aberrant common sense) behaviors. Virtually nothing is known
about scope and repertoire in common sense actions and behaviors.
[37]
Theatrical
forms of common sense and dysfunctional common sense reveal the potential for
distinctly darker and more heinous possibilities. These possibilities are far
more insidious than shooting sprees, suicides and other criminal wrongdoings.
Recent reports of tortures and “extraordinary renditions” reveal a potential
for unacceptably profound human rights abuses – especially by military and
intelligence operatives and national leaders. These types of violations in
common sense demonstrate levels of inhumanity unacceptable according to any
norms in behavior of any living entities. Obviously, this remains a fertile
area for future investigation, particularly in the context of studies on human
rights, boundaries on inhumanity, international law and peace ([16], [29],
[32], [80], [84], [85], [87], [94], [102] and [115] in TA100).
(1)
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October:
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Wm. Smith
e-mail <najms
(at) humanized-technologies.com>